Literature Review

A history, a theoretical framework, and the empirical record on state takeovers in large urban districts.

The purpose of the qualitative study is to analyze state takeover as a school reform in a large urban school district. The chapter consists of an introduction to state takeovers, the theoretical framework for the study, and a history of takeovers in large urban school districts. This will be followed by a discussion of the impacts of the policies of NCLB and ESSA, corrective actions, politics and educational equity. This chapter concludes with regional examples of takeovers of large urban school districts and a summary.

Table I

Background of the Problem — General

Theme	Core Finding	Key Evidence
State Takeovers Don't Work	Takeovers fail to improve student achievement or equity, even after years of state control.	Schueler & Bleiberg (2021); Bleiberg et al. (2023); Osworth (2022); Brookings (2024)
Racialized & Political Governance	Takeovers disproportionately target Black and Latino districts and reduce local democratic control.	Morel (2023, 2024); Cassidy & Nelson (2024); Luke (2022, 2024)
Neoliberal Reform Logic	Market-based reforms emphasize efficiency, accountability, and privatization over democratic governance.	Saltman (2023); Ravitch (2020); Finger & Reckhow (2021)
Broad Academy Leadership	Broad-trained superintendents show no academic gains and are linked to instability and charter expansion.	Dee, Loeb, & Shi (2022, 2023); Wright (2021); NEPC (2023)
Stakeholder Voice & Lived Experience	Stakeholder displacement, attrition, and lived experiences remain underexamined — especially in HISD.	Luke (2021, 2024); Seay (2024); Schueler & Bleiberg (2020); Morel (2023)
Human & Democratic Costs (Gap)	Stakeholder experiences remain underexamined — especially in HISD.	(Gap in literature)

Table II

Background of the Problem — Houston ISD

Theme	Core Finding	Key Evidence
Trigger for Takeover	HISD was taken over in 2023 due to one failing high school (Wheatley HS) out of 274 schools, under HB 1842 and SB 1365 Policy.	Texas Education Agency (2023); Texas Education Code §§39A.001–.010
Scale & Controversy	The HISD takeover represents one of the largest and most controversial state interventions in U.S. public education history.	Education Week (2023); Houston Landing (2023); Texas Tribune (2024)
Loss of Democratic Governance	Elected school board members and the superintendent were removed and replaced by state-appointed managers and a Broad Academy–trained superintendent/CMO.	TEA (2023); Blad (2023); Grace (2025)
Workforce Displacement & Attrition	Approximately 40% of teachers left in the first year; by year two, 7,200 of 11,000 teachers had exited. Additionally, 177 of 274 administrators were displaced within two years.	Houston Chronicle (2024); Houston Federation of Teachers (2024); Texas Tribune (2024)
Core Problem (Human Impact)	The takeover resulted in mass reconstruction, displacement, loss of voice, and organizational instability, raising serious concerns about equity, governance, and the human cost of state intervention.	Luke (2021, 2024); Seay (2024); HISD stakeholder testimony